Late August does not look much like fall along the Onslow County coast.

The sand is still hot. Afternoon thunderstorms still build over the mainland. The ocean can remain warm enough that stepping into it hardly feels like relief.

But beneath the surface, fall has already begun.

Fish that spent summer scattered through sounds, creeks, reefs, and nearshore water begin gathering. Shrimp start working their way out of nursery creeks. Mature female blue crabs move toward saltier water. Schools of mullet begin appearing along the beaches. Sharks that spent the warmer months farther north or inside coastal waters begin shifting south or offshore.

Above them, the birds begin changing too.

Some are preparing to leave. Others are arriving from places hundreds or thousands of miles away. Still others simply become more noticeable because suddenly there is food everywhere.

What looks from shore like a few gulls working over the water, a school of baitfish flashing beside a pier, or pelicans repeatedly diving beyond the breakers is part of something much larger.

For a few months each fall, the food web itself begins to move.

When the Water Begins to Change

Animals do not wait for a date on the calendar. Along the coast, fall arrives through changes in water temperature and daylight, but also through salinity, currents, rainfall, food availability, and the timing of reproduction. Different species respond to different combinations of those signals, which means the seasonal movement beginning beneath the surface is not one migration triggered in one way.

For some animals, cooling water begins narrowing where they can comfortably remain. King mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) favor warm coastal water and become less common as temperatures fall much below about 68°F, while cobia (Rachycentron canadum) begin leaving northern summer habitats as water cools through roughly the same range. Spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) respond differently. Rather than leaving our estuaries altogether, they begin shifting toward creeks, channels, and deeper water where a few additional feet of depth can provide protection from the colder temperatures still to come (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2022; Jensen & Graves, 2020; Ellis, Buckel, & Hightower, 2017; Ellis, Buckel, Hightower, & Poland, 2017).

Temperature can work together with another signal that changes every year whether the weather feels like fall or not: shortening daylight. Blacktip and sandbar sharks moving along the western Atlantic begin their southward migration as sea-surface temperatures change and the days grow shorter, leaving northern and Mid-Atlantic summer habitats and gradually shifting toward the South Atlantic Bight and Florida for winter and spring (Manz et al., 2025).

For other animals, autumn movement is tied less to escaping cooling water than to reaching the next stage of their life cycle. Southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma) spend their first years in estuarine waters, where shallow sounds, rivers, and creeks provide nursery and feeding habitat. Females begin maturing surprisingly early: some are reproductively mature by age one, most by age two, and nearly all by age three. Immature fish can remain within the estuary through winter, but once mature, southern flounder begin joining the fall movement through the inlets and toward offshore spawning grounds (Midway & Scharf, 2012; Craig et al., 2015).

That means fish of different ages can occupy the same estuary through summer and then take different paths as fall develops. A young flounder may remain behind while an older fish that spent the season feeding in the same system begins moving toward the ocean.

So while late-August water may still feel thoroughly summerlike to someone standing waist-deep at Topsail, the animals beneath the surface are already responding to a season that is only beginning to become visible above it.

One of the first clues may simply be a fish jumping beside you.

The Mullet Begin to Run

Striped, or sea, mullet (Mugil cephalus) spend much of the warmer season feeding throughout estuaries, sounds, tidal creeks, and protected coastal waters. By late summer, however, their movements begin to change. In North Carolina, striped mullet travel most actively between August and November as mature fish leave rivers, sounds, and tidal creeks for marine spawning habitat. Their journey carries them through the inlets and offshore into the South Atlantic Bight, with spawning habitat extending from nearshore waters toward the outer continental shelf where shelf water meets the influence of the Gulf Stream (Bacheler et al., 2005). For fish that spent the summer inside an estuary, that is a considerable change in geography, but still a relatively regional migration compared with species that will later continue much farther south along the Atlantic coast.

They begin making that seasonal journey relatively young. About half of North Carolina striped mullet are reproductively mature by age one, although maturity varies among individuals, and older adults may return to estuarine habitats after spawning. Rather than leaving the estuary permanently as they mature, they move between estuarine feeding grounds and marine spawning habitat as part of a seasonal cycle (Bichy, 2004; Bacheler et al., 2005).

For beachgoers, this can become one of the easiest fall migrations to notice. Fish that spent summer spread through rivers, creeks, and sounds begin collecting into increasingly conspicuous schools as they move toward inlets and coastal water. Once along the ocean beach, dense schools may travel remarkably close to shore, sometimes darkening the shallows or stretching along the surf zone beyond what can be seen from one spot. Mullet are frequent jumpers as well, so a school may first reveal itself as silver fish repeatedly breaking the surface.
By the time those schools reach the inlet and beach, they are carrying more than themselves with them. Striped mullet feed low in the food web, consuming algae, detritus, and organic material associated with estuarine sediments. As thousands of them move out of the estuary, that stored production moves with them and becomes available to the larger fishes, sharks, and birds that feed along the coast (Bacheler et al., 2005).

Those predators are already moving through the same corridor. Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) feed heavily on schooling fishes such as mullet, menhaden, and silversides. Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) work schools of anchovies and other small baitfish, while blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus) and spinner sharks (Carcharhinus brevipinna) take advantage of dense concentrations of coastal prey.

The fall mullet run is therefore more than thousands of fish leaving an estuary. It is estuarine production moving through the inlet and onto the beach, where it begins to intersect with predators following their own seasonal routes.

That intersection is what makes the migration suddenly visible. A school that might otherwise pass unnoticed can tighten near shore as bluefish, mackerel, sharks, and birds begin responding to the same moving concentration of prey.

Spanish Mackerel, Bluefish, and the Surface Chase

Sometimes the easiest way to find a migration is not to look for the animals themselves, but for what happens to the water when they arrive.

Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) spend the warmer months moving north along the Atlantic coast, reaching North Carolina in spring and remaining through summer and early fall while coastal water stays above roughly 68°F. As that warm-water window begins closing, they turn south again toward winter habitat off Florida, feeding heavily along the way on anchovies, silversides, menhaden, mullet, and other small schooling fishes (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2026; Sutherland & Fable, 1980).

Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) are moving through the same changing coast, but their fall pattern varies with age. Smaller bluefish tend to migrate south along the shoreline as water cools, while larger adults make more of an inshore-to-offshore shift. Farther north, fall movement begins as water drops into roughly the mid-50s Fahrenheit, gradually carrying fish into the warmer coastal waters to the south (Lund & Maltezos, 1970).
By the time those movements reach the Carolina coast, they are crossing water already crowded with prey. Anchovies, silversides, juvenile menhaden, and other tiny schooling fishes—many of the fishes beachgoers collectively call “glass minnows”—can become compressed near the surface, and even wash onto shore, as mackerel and bluefish strike through the schools from below.

Little tunny (Euthynnus alletteratus), better known locally as false albacore, can join that fall activity around inlets and nearshore waters as well. They too make seasonal movements along the Atlantic coast, shifting north through the warmer part of the year and south again through fall and winter while feeding in fast-moving schools (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2026).

From the beach, separating one predator from another may be nearly impossible. What becomes visible instead is the chase. A patch of otherwise smooth ocean suddenly begins to boil as tiny fish scatter across the surface. Gulls and terns converge overhead, pelicans turn toward the commotion, and dark backs or silver flashes cut through the school below.

Sometimes the entire event moves several hundred yards down the beach within minutes.

And the animals doing the chasing are still part of the food web themselves. Spanish mackerel and bluefish may be predators here, but both can become prey for larger sharks and tunas farther up the same moving chain. A small fish feeding on plankton becomes food for a mackerel; that mackerel may later become food for a shark.

Fall has compressed several levels of the food web into the same patch of water, and for a few minutes the whole thing becomes visible from shore.

The Sharks Following Fall

Shark migration can sound dramatic because sharks are dramatic animals.

Ecologically, however, their fall movements make perfect sense. Food is moving, water temperature is changing, nursery seasons are ending, and remaining in shallow water becomes increasingly expensive for animals whose body temperature largely follows the environment around them.

Blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus) and spinner sharks (Carcharhinus brevipinna) are warm-water coastal sharks frequently associated with schools of mullet, menhaden, and other fishes.

As coastal waters cool, these highly mobile sharks begin shifting south. For blacktips, that can mean a substantial journey: sharks that spent the warmer months along the Carolinas and farther north move down the Atlantic coast toward Florida, with large winter aggregations forming in the warm coastal waters of southeast Florida. Spinner sharks also shift south as autumn progresses, although exactly how their seasonal routes connect Carolina summer habitat with winter habitat farther south is less clearly understood (Manz et al., 2025).
Their movement is not caused by prey alone. Temperature and the gradually shortening length of the day contribute to the timing of autumn migration, while concentrations of prey can influence where sharks pause and feed along the route (Manz et al., 2025). That shortening daylight is the actual span between sunrise and sunset—not the hour shown on our clocks. The gradual loss of daylight from late summer into fall provides a predictable seasonal signal even when water temperatures vary from one year to the next.

The shallow coastal habitats these sharks use during migration are also important much earlier in life. Blacktip pups are born in protected nursery areas away from most adults, and young sharks can remain associated with shallow coastal habitat for several years as they grow. Males generally reach maturity around four to five years old, while females mature closer to six or seven; spinner sharks follow a similarly slow timetable, with females maturing later than males (Carlson et al., 2006; NOAA Fisheries, 2017).

That means the shallow water along the coast is not simply a birthplace young sharks immediately leave behind. It can remain part of their world through several juvenile years before the broader seasonal movements of adulthood become established. Exactly how strongly young sharks remain connected to individual nursery areas is still being studied, but nursery habitat can shape where they spend some of the most vulnerable years of their lives (Heupel et al., 2007; NOAA Fisheries, 2017, 2024).

Around New River Inlet and the beaches of Topsail, those later seasonal movements begin intersecting with the migrations already underway. Schools of mullet, Spanish mackerel, and other coastal fishes can create concentrated feeding opportunities along the same corridor, and both blacktips and spinner sharks may breach during fast pursuits, with spinner sharks sometimes twisting through the air in the leaps that gave the species its name (Bangley, 2014).

A beachgoer watching a fall bait ball may therefore be seeing several stages of the coastal food web converge in the same narrow stretch of water.

Atlantic sharpnose sharks (Rhizoprionodon terraenovae) use shallow coastal waters, sounds, bays, and estuaries throughout the warmer months. Adults are generally only a few feet long and feed on small fishes, shrimp, crabs, squid, and other coastal prey (Bethea et al., 2006; Roskar et al., 2024).

Their fall movement is much smaller in scale than the southward migration of blacktips. During summer, Atlantic sharpnose are abundant in the shallow nearshore waters of Onslow Bay, where both immature and mature sharks occur and pups are likely born. As autumn progresses, they become less common in those shallow areas and shift toward deeper coastal habitat. Adults have even been found using offshore wrecks in North Carolina during winter before returning toward shallower water in spring (Roskar et al., 2024).

So for Atlantic sharpnose, fall may mean moving offshore without leaving the region entirely. Predation does not disappear from the coastal food web; it simply shifts into a different part of it.

Sandbar sharks (Carcharhinus plumbeus) show how different that scale can become. Young sandbars spend the warmer months in shallow nursery habitat farther north along the Mid-Atlantic, then move offshore and south during late September and October. Many repeat that seasonal route for several years as juveniles, wintering from North Carolina toward Florida before returning north in spring. As they grow, the journey expands, with older sandbars ranging from southern New England to Florida and Cuba (Merson & Pratt, 2001; McCandless et al., 2007; Kohler et al., 1998).

Their autumn departure is tied closely to cooling water and shortening day length, while prey encountered along the route determines where they may stop and feed (Manz et al., 2025).

Off Onslow County, artificial reefs and natural hard-bottom habitats add patches of structure to that broader migration corridor. AR-342, the Onslow Bay Saltwater Fishing Club Reef, lies in about 49 feet of water and is one such patch where fishes and other prey can concentrate along the shelf (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2017).

A reef does not have to be an animal’s destination to matter. Sometimes it is simply a place to feed before the migration continues.

Cobia and the Last Warm-Water Feeding

Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) are another warm-season visitor beginning to run out of time. During spring and summer they move north along the Atlantic coast, using coastal and offshore waters from the Carolinas into Chesapeake Bay and farther north. They favor warm water, generally around 68–86°F, and as autumn temperatures begin slipping toward the lower end of that range, they start shifting offshore and south toward warmer winter habitat (Jensen & Graves, 2020).

That places coastal North Carolina somewhere in the middle of the journey. The cobia moving through our waters are not necessarily arriving for winter or leaving from a summer home here. 

For many, this stretch of coast is part of the route between the two.

Along the way, structure matters. Buoys, wrecks, reefs, and artificial reefs can gather baitfish and other prey into small pockets of activity in otherwise open water, giving a traveling cobia a place to feed before continuing south (Jensen & Graves, 2020). A reef that holds feeding cobia may also be busy with reef fishes, passing mackerel, schools of bait, and other predators using the same patch of water for their own reasons.

By fall, the coast begins to feel less like a collection of separate habitats and more like a series of connected stopping places along the migration route.

Flounder Leave Through the Bottom

Not every migration announces itself at the surface. Some of the most important fall movement in Onslow County happens quietly along the bottom.

Southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma) spend the first years of their lives inside estuaries, lying over mud, sand, oyster habitat, creek bottoms, and other shallow nursery and feeding areas where they prey on fish and crustaceans. In North Carolina, many females begin reaching reproductive maturity around ages one to two and roughly 16 inches in length, although growth and maturity vary considerably among individual fish (Midway & Scharf, 2012).
That means a southern flounder can spend years growing within the estuary before ever contributing to the offshore spawning population. Immature fish may remain within estuarine waters through winter, while mature fish begin leaving in fall for offshore spawning habitat. Fish encountered farther offshore tend to be larger and older, while younger fish remain more closely associated with the sounds, rivers, and creeks where they grew (Craig et al., 2015).
A fish that spent its first years nearly invisible beneath New River mud can suddenly become part of an offshore migration.

Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) make a similar outward journey, although their early life follows a slightly different timetable. Larvae and juveniles use coastal bays, sounds, and estuaries as nursery habitat for roughly their first 18 to 20 months, and most reach reproductive maturity around age two to three. In the South Atlantic Bight, about half are mature by roughly 11 to 12 inches total length, although females generally mature at a somewhat larger size than males (Packer, 1999).

Like southern flounder, they spend their younger years feeding and growing in protected coastal habitat before mature fish begin moving offshore in fall toward continental-shelf spawning grounds. By then, the fish leaving the estuary are not simply larger versions of the juveniles that remain behind; they are the part of the population capable of producing the next generation.
So the two flatfish a beachgoer might easily confuse are doing something remarkably similar at this time of year. Both spend their younger years in shallow coastal and estuarine nursery habitat, and both eventually move offshore to spawn. What differs is the timing—how quickly they mature, how long they remain closely tied to those nursery grounds, and where along the coast each species is most concentrated.

The Fall Runs Gather Nearshore

The familiar fishes around piers change with fall too.

Spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) and Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) spend important parts of their early lives inside estuaries, feeding over sandy and muddy bottoms on worms, small crustaceans, organic material, and other small prey (Warlen & Burke, 1990; Ross, 1988)

Spot remain closely tied to estuarine nursery habitat through their first year, gradually moving into deeper and saltier parts of the system as they grow. By fall, the larger fish begin gathering closer to channels, inlets, and the ocean before continuing toward offshore spawning grounds south of Cape Hatteras. There, spawning continues through fall and winter in substantially warmer shelf water, roughly 63–77°F, with the strongest activity around 68°F (Warlen & Chester, 1985; Allen et al., 2024).

Atlantic croaker follow a similar route on a slightly different schedule. Young croaker enter low-salinity estuarine nursery areas after being spawned offshore, then grow rapidly through their first year. As fall develops, many begin moving back toward open coastal water, with the spawning migration beginning as early as September and continuing into winter (White & Chittenden, 1977; Norcross & Austin, 1988).

Weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) join that same seasonal pull toward the coast. Through spring and summer they use sounds, estuaries, and nearshore habitat, feeding heavily on shrimp, crustaceans, and smaller fishes. As autumn water cools toward about 75°F, they begin gathering and shifting offshore and south; during warmer years, some linger longer before making that move (Krause et al., 2020).

By this point in fall, fishes that spent summer scattered through different parts of the estuary are beginning to converge along the same channels, inlets, and nearshore corridor. The movement is outward, but not entirely.

While larger spot and croaker are leaving for offshore spawning grounds, their next generation is already beginning the opposite journey. Larvae produced offshore in fall and winter can begin entering North Carolina estuaries by late fall and early winter, with that inward movement continuing through spring (Warlen & Burke, 1990; Allen et al., 2024).

So even as one generation moves out through the inlet, another is beginning to come back in.

The Fish That Stay—but Change Address

Migration does not always mean leaving Onslow County. For some fishes, fall means finding a different part of the same estuary.

Spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), or speckled trout, remain in coastal North Carolina through winter, but they do not necessarily stay where they spent August. As the shallow sounds and creek edges cool, trout begin gathering around channels, deeper holes, creek mouths, and other places where a few extra feet of water can provide more stable temperatures.

That difference becomes increasingly important as winter approaches. Spotted seatrout begin showing cold stress when water falls below about 45°F, and prolonged periods below roughly 44.6°F can produce substantial winter mortality in North Carolina. Deeper sections of an estuary can remain slightly warmer during a severe cold event, giving fish somewhere to retreat when the shallows become too cold (Ellis, Buckel, & Hightower, 2017; Ellis, Buckel, Hightower, & Poland, 2017).

So the autumn congregation of trout around creek mouths, bridge structure, channels, and deep holes is more than a change in where they happen to be feeding. By fall, they are beginning to settle into the parts of the estuary that may carry them through winter.

Black drum (Pogonias cromis) reorganize themselves through fall as well, although their movement depends partly on age. Young black drum spend their first year within estuaries, feeding over mud, sand, oyster habitat, and other bottoms rich in worms, small crustaceans, and mollusks. As they grow, they begin using saltier water and deeper coastal habitat, while larger fish are often associated with oyster bars, bridge and dock pilings, channels, and other structure where clams, oysters, crabs, and other bottom prey collect (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2026).

By late fall, black drum generally shift away from the shallowest summer habitat toward deeper bays, sounds, channels, and offshore water. Unlike spotted seatrout, there is not one well-defined temperature at which that movement begins. Instead, cooling water gradually changes where suitable feeding and winter habitat remain available, with older fish tending to range farther toward high-salinity and offshore waters (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2026).

A piling or oyster bar that held one mix of fishes through summer may still be occupied in November, but by a different combination of animals using the same structure for colder-water feeding and refuge.

The habitat has not disappeared. Its seasonal community has changed.

Shrimp Begin Pouring Out of the Creeks

Some of the most important migrants along the Onslow County coast are only a few inches long.

White shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus), locally called greentails, spend much of their early lives inside estuarine nursery habitat. They grow rapidly in warm water, and once they reach only about 0.8 to 1.2 inches long, they begin leaving the shallowest marsh habitat for deeper creeks, rivers, bays, and sounds. By late summer and fall, larger young shrimp—often around 4.7 inches or more—are moving farther downstream toward channels, inlets, and ultimately the ocean (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2023).

Cooling water helps drive that progression, but rainfall can accelerate it. Heavy freshwater input lowers estuarine salinity and can push shrimp downstream and toward the ocean before they otherwise would have left. That means a wet fall and a dry fall do not necessarily produce the same migration (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2023).

The shrimp are responding to an estuary that is changing around them, and almost everything seems interested in eating them. Flounder, speckled trout, red drum, weakfish, sharks, wading birds, and humans all take advantage of shrimp as they move through the coastal food web (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2023).

A strong outward movement of white shrimp is therefore not merely a shrimp migration. It is a moving food resource.

When those shrimp leave marsh creeks and spread toward the sound and inlet, predators that were previously separated begin encountering the same pulse of prey in increasingly narrow parts of the estuary.

The estuary briefly becomes a funnel.

The Blue Crabs Take Different Roads

Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) complicate the idea of a single fall migration even further because males and females do not necessarily go the same direction.

Adult males generally remain farther upriver in lower-salinity water, while mature females move toward saltier portions of the estuary and eventually toward inlet and coastal spawning habitat. Females can travel considerable distances during this migration, using salinity gradients, tides, and currents to move toward the high-salinity water needed for spawning (Bell & Eggleston, 2023; Forward et al., 2003).

That split makes sense once their life cycle is considered. Females typically mate in brackish estuarine water, then store sperm until they are ready to produce an egg mass. As spawning approaches, they move toward the lower estuary and inlet, where much saltier water provides the conditions their developing larvae need. Eggs hatch near the mouth of the estuary or just beyond it, and the larvae are carried offshore before later returning toward the coast as postlarvae (Forward et al., 2003; Epifanio, 2019).

The same inlet therefore serves two directions of the blue crab life cycle: mature females move outward toward spawning water, while a later generation is carried back toward estuarine nursery habitat.

For a blue crab, the difference between a brackish river and a salty inlet is not simply scenery. One supports mating and much of adult life, while the other provides the salinity needed to begin the next generation.

A single life cycle requires both.

Rays Begin Leaving the Shallows

Large dark wings moving beneath clear water are among the more obvious signs that rays are using shallow coastal habitat during summer. By fall, where those rays appear—and how they move through the coast—begins to change.

Cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) are highly mobile schooling rays that use North Carolina sounds, estuaries, and nearshore waters during the warmer months. Through summer they may be scattered across that habitat, sometimes appearing alone or in small groups over shallow flats and sounds. As fall develops, rays that have been using North Carolina estuaries begin moving toward the ocean side, while migrants arriving from farther north join the same southbound corridor along the Carolina coast.

That is when larger schools can become more noticeable along the beaches and nearshore waters. Their movement continues south toward winter habitat off Florida, with cooling water helping shape when they leave northern and estuarine habitats (Goodman et al., 2010; Omori & Fisher, 2017; Bangley et al., 2021).

For someone watching from Topsail, the rays seen scattered through the sound during summer can become part of something much larger by fall. A few dark wings moving over an estuarine flat may give way to schools traveling along the ocean side as North Carolina becomes part of the passage between northern summer waters and winter habitat farther south.

Southern stingrays (Hypanus americanus) make a quieter seasonal shift. Their summer presence along North Carolina is part of a much older warm-season pattern, with southern stingrays historically documented moving north along the Carolina coast as warmer water expands their usable habitat (Coles, 1913).

Unlike cownose rays traveling in schools higher in the water column, southern stingrays remain closely tied to the bottom. Through summer, they can be a familiar sight moving over warm sand and mud flats, along creek mouths, and through shallow estuarine water as they search the bottom for worms, bivalves, shrimp, crabs, and small fishes. Even when they move between habitats, much of that movement remains along or just above the benthic surface rather than through open water (Gilliam & Sullivan, 1993; Tilley et al., 2013).

As the shallow flats cool through fall, they become less common in the places where beachgoers may have seen them repeatedly through July and August. Their seasonal movement is not mapped nearly as clearly in North Carolina as that of cownose rays, so we cannot point to one temperature or one offshore route. What we can say is that southern stingrays are capable of moving between shallow flats and considerably deeper bottom habitat while remaining closely associated with the seafloor (Coles, 1913; Corcoran et al., 2013).

For someone watching the shallows, that change may simply look like absence. The stingray that repeatedly crossed the same warm flat all summer is suddenly harder to find—not because it has joined a large southbound school above the bottom, but because its usable benthic habitat has shifted beyond the shallows where it was easiest to see.

Red Drum Gather at the Edges

Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus), and our state fish, add another layer to the fall movement. Young fish spend their first years closely tied to estuaries, growing quickly from roughly 12 to 14 inches by their first birthday to more than 27 inches during their second full year. They do not reach reproductive maturity quite as quickly, however. In North Carolina, most become mature around ages three to four, when they are roughly 30 to 36 inches long (Ross et al., 1995).

That difference is something a beachgoer or angler can actually see. The smaller “puppy drum” encountered along marsh edges, creeks, and sounds are still growing within the estuarine part of their life cycle, while the much larger fish appearing around beaches and inlets are increasingly part of the adult population that spends more time in coastal and ocean waters.
By late summer and early fall, mature red drum gather around inlets, beaches, and nearshore waters, where spawning and feeding can overlap. In North Carolina, spawning occurs from August into early October near barrier-island inlets and adjacent coastal waters. During that same period, adults move more actively between estuarine and ocean habitats (Ross et al., 1995; Bacheler et al., 2009).

That puts a large red drum outside New River Inlet directly into the same corridor carrying mullet, menhaden, shrimp, spot, croaker, and other prey toward the ocean. It may be there to spawn, to feed, or simply because its own seasonal movement has brought it into the same narrow stretch of coast.

As fall gives way to winter, mature adults increasingly move into ocean waters where temperatures remain more moderate, while younger red drum are much more likely to remain behind in the estuary (Stewart & Scharf, 2008).

The Offshore Visitors Come Close

Fall also brings some animals toward the coast before eventually carrying them away.

King mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) are warm-water fish that seldom move into water much below about 68°F. Through summer and the warmer part of fall, they can move surprisingly close to the beaches, inlet mouths, and nearshore reefs of North Carolina, following schools of menhaden, mullet, sardines, and other prey into places where a beachgoer or pier angler may suddenly encounter a fish that spends much of its time farther offshore (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2022).

That window does not last. As coastal water continues cooling toward the lower edge of their preferred range, king mackerel begin shifting south and farther toward the warmer waters of the continental shelf. By winter, much of the Atlantic population has moved toward southern Florida, while some fish remain in deeper North Carolina waters near the Gulf Stream (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2022).

For a few weeks, that creates an unusual overlap along the Onslow coast. Animals moving out of the estuary meet predators moving closer to shore to feed, while other migrants are already passing south or beginning their move offshore. An inlet or artificial reef that seemed relatively quiet several weeks earlier can suddenly sit at the crossing point of several different seasonal routes.

For a short time, it becomes an intersection.

Then the Menhaden Arrive

By October and November, another migration becomes increasingly visible.

Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) move south along the Atlantic coast as fall deepens, with older and larger fish returning from summer waters farther north. Spawning can occur along the migration route from late fall into early spring, but one of the major winter gathering areas lies off North Carolina near Cape Hatteras (Lewis et al., 1987; Nicholson, 1978).

For Onslow County, that means some of the dark schools appearing beyond the breakers are part of a much larger coastwide movement passing our beaches on the way toward winter spawning waters.

Menhaden occupy an unusual place in the coastal food web. They filter tiny phytoplankton and zooplankton from the water, then gather that scattered production into dense schools of oily fish large enough for predators to chase (Lewis & Peters, 1994). Bluefish, striped bass, sharks, tunas, dolphins, and seabirds all take advantage of them, making menhaden one of the connections between plankton near the bottom of the food web and some of the largest predators along the coast (Chagaris et al., 2020; Lewis & Peters, 1994).

For a beachgoer, the first sign may simply be a dark patch offshore that does not move like a shadow. Then birds begin gathering above it. The surface breaks as predators push into the school from below, and what looked like an indistinct patch of water suddenly becomes one of the busiest places along the beach.

That is when looking up becomes as important as looking into the water.

Because another migration has arrived.

The Atlantic Flyway Meets the Fall Fish Run

The Atlantic Flyway follows the eastern edge of North America, placing the North Carolina coast directly beneath one of the continent’s major migration routes. For birds traveling hundreds or thousands of miles between breeding and wintering grounds, Onslow County is not simply coastline passing beneath their wings. Its beaches, marshes, tidal flats, sounds, and inlets can provide places to rest and replenish the energy needed for the next part of the journey (Smith et al., 2022).

Fall makes that stop especially busy because the migration overhead is unfolding at the same time the water below is changing. Shrimp are moving out of creeks. Mullet and other fishes are funneling toward the inlets. Schools of bait gather along the beaches, and menhaden begin moving down the coast. For birds that feed on fishes and coastal invertebrates, those movements can turn the Onslow shoreline into a series of feeding opportunities along the Atlantic Flyway.

But the transition is not a clean exchange in which the summer birds simply leave and winter birds immediately take their places. It happens gradually, with departures, arrivals, and birds merely passing through overlapping for weeks.

The Birds Moving Through or South

Some of the first changes are easiest to notice in the marsh. Green herons (Butorides virescens) begin moving south from late August through October, while least bitterns (Ixobrychus exilis) also leave much of their northern breeding range for warmer winter habitat. A bird that spent summer hunting from the edge of a tidal creek may simply become harder to find as September advances (Smith et al., 2022).

Along the beaches and nesting islands, the summer community begins loosening in several directions at once. Wilson’s plovers (Anarhynchus wilsonia), least terns (Sternula antillarum), gull-billed terns (Gelochelidon nilotica), black skimmers (Rynchops niger), and sandwich terns (Thalasseus sandvicensis) begin leaving breeding areas or redistributing south along the coast. Royal terns (Thalasseus maximus) may linger longer, while ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) begin following waterways and coastlines toward wintering grounds farther south (North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, 2025; Smith et al., 2022).

The shorebirds make the transition even less tidy.

The eastern Willet (Tringa semipalmata semipalmata) breeds in Atlantic salt marshes, including those along the North Carolina coast, before leaving for wintering grounds that can lie as far away as northern South America. But the Willet standing on a Topsail flat in fall is not automatically one of the birds that nested here. Western Willets (Tringa semipalmata inornata), which breed in the interior of western North America, can also occur along the Atlantic coast outside the breeding season. For a few weeks, birds from very different summer landscapes may use the same Carolina shoreline (Oswald et al., 2016; Huysman et al., 2022).

Lesser yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) and greater yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) add another layer of passing traffic. They arrive from breeding grounds much farther north, with adults beginning their southward movements as early as July and younger birds following later. Along coastal North Carolina, exposed flats, shallow marsh edges, and pools of tidal water become temporary feeding grounds along that journey (Smith et al., 2022).

That makes the falling tide part of the migration too. A mudflat that looked empty beneath the previous high tide can suddenly hold Willets, yellowlegs, plovers, and other shorebirds probing exposed sediment for worms, small crustaceans, mollusks, and other prey. North Carolina barrier-island studies have found fall shorebirds shifting among the swash zone, wet sand, spits, and tidal habitat as water levels change, using different pieces of the shoreline for feeding and resting through the tidal cycle (Tarr, 2008).

For some of those birds, the stop may last days. For others, only hours. The tide falls, a feeding ground appears, and birds moving along the Atlantic coast briefly settle into it before the water—or the migration—carries them onward.

The Winter Coast Begins Arriving

The winter coast does not arrive all at once. Its first birds begin appearing in September, more follow through October, and by November the sounds, marshes, and beaches of Onslow County can hold a noticeably different community than they did at the end of summer.

On the sounds and protected water behind the barrier islands, buffleheads (Bucephala albeola) begin settling into sheltered coves, bays, and estuaries, repeatedly disappearing beneath the surface in search of small crustaceans, mollusks, and other aquatic prey. Red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) arrive as well, often working shallow coastal water and estuaries in small groups as they dive after fish (Gauthier, 1993; Titman, 1999; Smith et al., 2022).

The marsh begins changing at the same time. American black ducks (Anas rubripes) appear more regularly in salt marshes, tidal creeks, ponds, and estuaries, while Green-winged teal (Anas crecca) increase in shallow protected water. Both spent the breeding season much farther north, but by fall the sounds and marshes of the Atlantic coast have become part of their winter landscape (Robinson et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2022).

Along the ocean side, the change is visible at the water’s edge. Dunlin (Calidris alpina), sanderlings (Calidris alba), red knots (Calidris canutus), and black-bellied plovers (Pluvialis squatarola) begin working beaches, shoals, exposed flats, and inlet margins. Some will remain along the southeastern coast through winter, while others are pausing only long enough to feed before continuing south. As the tide falls they spread across wet sand and exposed flats; when the water returns, they are gradually pushed toward higher beaches and roosting areas (Burger et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2022; Tarr, 2008).

Red knots make the scale of that movement especially clear. A bird standing quietly near the wrack line may have arrived from Arctic breeding grounds and may still be headed toward winter habitat in the southeastern United States, the Caribbean, or northern South America. Individual birds do not all travel the same route or distance, but for some, the Carolina coast is only one stop in a journey spanning thousands of miles (Burger et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2022).

That changes what a quiet fall beach can mean. The wet sand, tidal flats, wrack, marshes, and sheltered water are not empty spaces between destinations. For birds arriving from the north, they are places to replace the energy already spent before the next part of the migration begins.

When the Food Web Takes to the Air

Fall adds another layer of hunters above the shoreline.

Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) move south along the Atlantic coast during migration, often following the same barrier islands, mudflats, and shorelines being used by migrating shorebirds. They are not interested in the mullet, shrimp, or menhaden moving below the surface. They are interested in the birds feeding around them. Shorebirds, ducks, gulls, and other coastal birds become prey themselves, adding another level to the food web moving through the coast (Smith et al., 2022).

Farther offshore, the change becomes visible in a different way. Double-crested cormorants (Nannopterum auritum) arrive along the Carolina coast in large numbers and spend much of their time diving after fish. Menhaden are among the schooling fishes they readily take, tying these winter visitors directly into the same fall movement already passing through the inlets and along the beaches (Watts et al., 2023).

Red-throated loons (Gavia stellata) and common loons (Gavia immer) begin appearing along the ocean side as well. Both spend the warmer months much farther north, but by late fall they are back in shallow marine waters, sounds, bays, and estuaries where fish are abundant. A bird that spent summer on a northern lake or tundra pond may now be diving just beyond the breakers along Topsail (Stenhouse et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2022).

Then come the northern gannets (Morus bassanus).

By late fall, they become one of the most spectacular signs that the seasonal food web has shifted. Northern gannets spend much of the nonbreeding season between New York and North Carolina, feeding almost entirely on schooling fishes such as herring, mackerel, and menhaden over the continental shelf (Mowbray, 2020; Smith et al., 2022).

From shore, a feeding aggregation can seem to appear from nowhere. Large white birds circle above a patch of ocean, fold their wings, and plunge headfirst into the water. One follows another until dozens may be dropping into the same moving patch of sea.

The important thing may not be the gannets themselves, but what they are pointing toward.
Beneath them is a school of fish. Around that school may be bluefish, sharks, dolphins, or other large predators pushing the same prey toward the surface. The birds above and the predators below are using the same concentration of food from opposite directions.

What began months earlier as plankton, marsh production, and small animals feeding inside estuaries has now moved far enough through the food web to become visible from the beach as birds falling out of the sky.

What Happens if One Migration Does Not Arrive?

It is easy to think about migration as something belonging to individual species—the mullet run, the shrimp migration, the shark migration, the Atlantic Flyway. But the coast does not experience those movements separately. Predators are responding to prey, young fishes are entering estuaries when nursery habitat and food are available, adults are leaving when spawning habitat lies offshore, and blue crabs are moving between different salinity zones because different stages of their lives depend on different parts of the estuary (Warlen & Burke, 1990; Forward et al., 2003).

That means a change in one migration does not necessarily stop with the animal making it.

If fewer mullet leave an estuary, there may be less concentrated prey moving along the beach for bluefish, sharks, pelicans, and terns. The difference is not simply fewer mullet in one place. Some of the energy that spent summer accumulating inside the estuary now reaches the nearshore food web in a different amount, at a different time, or along a different route (Bacheler et al., 2005).

White shrimp show how quickly those relationships can shift. Heavy rainfall lowers estuarine salinity and can push shrimp toward the inlet earlier than they might have moved during a drier fall. Predators farther inside the estuary may encounter fewer shrimp, while those gathered nearer the inlet may suddenly encounter more. The migration still happens, but its timing changes where that pulse of food becomes available (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, 2023).

Temperature can alter the overlap in another way. A coastal shark that remains farther north later into a warm fall may not encounter its prey in quite the same places or at quite the same time if those prey are responding to a different set of seasonal cues. Warmer ocean conditions are already capable of delaying southward shark migrations and extending how long some species remain in northern seasonal habitat (Manz et al., 2025).

None of this means every migration must occur on the same date each year. Coastal systems have always varied with storms, rainfall, temperature, currents, and food availability. What matters is that the movements continue to cross one another often enough for the relationships among them to persist.

A predator still has to encounter its prey. A larva still has to reach suitable nursery habitat, and a migrating bird still has to find enough food to continue south.

The timing does not have to be exact, but the meeting still has to happen.

Watching the Coast Change

By September, the first changes are already beginning. Mullet gather near the inlets, shrimp move out of tidal creeks, rays become less common over shallow flats, and feeding birds begin revealing where bait has collected near the surface.

By October and November, the same places can hold a very different community. Some animals have moved only a few miles into deeper water, while others are passing Onslow County on journeys that continue far beyond the Carolina coast.

The landscape itself looks much the same. New River Inlet still cuts through the barrier island. The marsh grass still bends with the wind. The same beach stretches north and south.
What changes is who is moving through it.

For a few months each fall, Onslow County becomes a meeting place between departures, arrivals, and animals simply shifting into the next piece of habitat they need.

The landscape stays where it is.
The food web moves through it.

References

Allen, D. M., Govoni, J. J., Able, K. W., Buckel, J. A., Hale, E. A., Hilton, E. J., Kellison, G. T., Targett, T. E., Taylor, J. C., & Walsh, H. J. (2024). Long-term dynamics of larval and early juvenile spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) off the U.S. East Coast: Relating ocean origins, estuarine Ingress, and changing environmental conditions. Fishery Bulletin, 122(4), 162-185. https://doi.org/10.7755/fb.122.4.3

Bacheler, N. M., Paramore, L. M., Burdick, S. M., Buckel, J. A., & Hightower, J. E. (2009). Variation in movement patterns of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) inferred from conventional tagging and ultrasonic telemetry. Fishery Bulletin, 107(4), 405-419. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/2009/1074/bacheler.pdf

Bacheler, N. M., Wong, R. A., & Buckel, J. A. (2005). Movements and mortality rates of striped mullet in North Carolina. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 25(1), 361-373. https://doi.org/10.1577/m04-033.1

Bangley, C. (2026, July 9). Sharks of North Carolina. Coastwatch. https://ncseagrant.ncsu.edu/coastwatch/sharks-of-north-carolina/

Bangley, C. W., Edwards, M. L., Mueller, C., Fisher, R. A., Aguilar, R., Heggie, K., Richie, K., Ahr, B. J., & Ogburn, M. B. (2021). Environmental associations of cownose ray (Rhinoptera bonasus) seasonal presence along the U.S. Atlantic coast. Ecosphere, 12(9). https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.3743

Bell, G. W., & Eggleston, D. B. (2023). Timing and route of migration of mature female blue crabs in a large, wind-driven Estuary. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 152(2), 253-269. https://doi.org/10.1002/tafs.10391

Bethea, D. M., Carlson, J. K., & Buckel, J. A. (2006). Ontogenetic and site-related trends in the diet of the Atlantic sharpnose shark Rhizoprionodon terraenovae from the northeast Gulf of Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science, 78(2), 287-307. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/2006/00000078/00000002/art00005?crawler=true

Bichy, J. B. (2004). A life history assessment on the reproduction and growth of striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, in North Carolina [Unpublished master’s thesis]. North Carolina State University.

Burger, J., Niles, L. J., Porter, R. R., Dey, A. D., Koch, S., & Gordon, C. (2012). Using a shore bird (red knot) fitted with geolocators to evaluate a conceptual risk model focusing on offshore wind. Renewable Energy, 43, 370-377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2011.11.006

Carlson, J. K., Sulikowski, J. R., & Baremore, I. E. (2006). Do differences in life history exist for blacktip sharks, Carcharhinus limbatus, from the United States south Atlantic bight and eastern Gulf of Mexico? Environmental Biology of Fishes, 77(3-4), 279-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-006-9129-x

Chagaris, D., Drew, K., Schueller, A., Cieri, M., Brito, J., & Buchheister, A. (2020). Ecological reference points for Atlantic menhaden established using an ecosystem model of intermediate complexity. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.606417

Coles, R. J. (1913). Notes on the embryos of several species of rays, with remarks on the northward summer migration of certain tropical forms observed on the coast of North Carolina. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 32, 29-35. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26891225#page/491/mode/1up

Corcoran, M. J., Wetherbee, B. M., Shivji, M. S., Potenski, M. D., Chapman, D. D., & Harvey, G. M. (2013). Supplemental feeding for ecotourism reverses Diel activity and alters movement patterns and spatial distribution of the southern Stingray, Dasyatis americana. PLoS ONE, 8(3), e59235. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0059235

Craig, J. K., Smith, W. E., Scharf, F. S., & Monaghan, J. P. (2015). Estuarine residency and migration of southern flounder inferred from conventional tag returns at multiple spatial scales. Marine and Coastal Fisheries, 7(1), 450-463. https://doi.org/10.1080/19425120.2015.1079578

Ellis, T. A., Buckel, J. A., Hightower, J. E., & Poland, S. J. (2017). Relating cold tolerance to winterkill for spotted seatrout at its northern latitudinal limits. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 490, 42-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2017.01.010

Ellis, T., Buckel, J., & Hightower, J. (2017). Winter severity influences spotted seatrout mortality in a southeast US estuarine system. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 564, 145-161. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11985

Epifanio, C. E. (2019). Early life history of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus: A review. Journal of Shellfish Research, 38(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.2983/035.038.0101

Forward, R. B., Tankersley, R. A., & Welch, J. M. (2003). Selective tidal-stream transport of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus: An overview. Bulletin of Marine Science, 72(2), 347-365. https://scholars.duke.edu/publication/771475

Gauthier, G. (1993). Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola). In The Birds of North America (67th ed.). The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia & The American Ornithologists’ Union.

Gilliam, D. S., & Sullivan, K. M. (1993). Diet and feeding habits of the southern stingray Dasyatis americana in the central Bahamas. Bulletin of Marine Science, 52(3), 1007-1013. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1570&context=occ_facarticles

Goodman, M. A., Conn, P. B., & Fitzpatrick, E. (2010). Seasonal occurrence of Cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) in North Carolina’s estuarine and coastal waters. Estuaries and Coasts, 34(3), 640-651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-010-9355-5

Heupel, M., Carlson, J., & Simpfendorfer, C. (2007). Shark nursery areas: Concepts, definition, characterization and assumptions. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 337, 287-297. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps337287

Huysman, A. E., Cooper, N. W., Smith, J. A., Haig, S. M., Heath, S. A., Johnson, L., Olson, E., Regan, K., Wilson, J. K., & Marra, P. P. (2022). Strong migratory connectivity indicates Willets need subspecies-specific conservation strategies. Ornithological Applications, 124(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/ornithapp/duac015

Jensen, D. R., & Graves, J. E. (2020). Movements, habitat utilization, and post-release survival of cobia (Rachycentron canadum) that summer in Virginia waters assessed using pop-up satellite archival tags. Animal Biotelemetry, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40317-020-00212-0

Kohler, N. E., Casey, J. G., & Turner, P. A. (1998). NMFS Cooperative Shark Tagging Program, 1962–93: An atlas of shark tag and recapture data. Marine Fisheries Review, 60(2), 1-87. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/mfr6021.pdf

Krause, J. R., Hightower, J. E., Buckel, J. A., Turnure, J. T., Grothues, T. M., Manderson, J. P., Rosendale, J. E., & Pessutti, J. P. (2020). Using acoustic telemetry to estimate weakfish survival rates along the U.S. East Coast. Marine and Coastal Fisheries, 12(5), 241-257. https://doi.org/10.1002/mcf2.10095

Lewis, R. M., Ahrenholz, D. W., & Epperly, S. P. (1987). Fecundity of Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus. Estuaries, 10(4), 347. https://doi.org/10.2307/1351894

Lewis, V. P., & Peters, D. S. (1994). Diet of juvenile and adult Atlantic menhaden in estuarine and coastal habitats. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 123(5), 803-810. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1994)123<0803:dojaaa>2.3.co;2

Lund, W. A., & Maltezos, G. C. (1970). Movements and migrations of the bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix, tagged in waters of New York and southern New England. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 99(4), 719-725. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1970)99<719:mamotb>2.0.co;2

Manz, M. H., Shipley, O. N., Cerrato, R. M., Hueter, R. E., Newton, A. L., Tyminski, J. P., Franks, B. R., Curtis, T. H., Fischer, C., Zacharias, J. P., Scott, C., Dunton, K. J., Kneebone, J., Peterson, B. J., Scannell, B. J., Dodd, J. F., & Frisk, M. G. (2025). Predictions of southern migration timing in coastal sharks under future ocean warming. Conservation Biology, 39(6), e70080. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.70080

McCandless, C. T., Pratt, Jr., H. L., Kohler, N. E., Merson, R. R., & Recksiek, C. W. (2007). Distribution, localized abundance, movements, and migrations of juvenile sandbar sharks tagged in Delaware Bay. In Shark nursery grounds of the Gulf of Mexico and the east coast waters of the United States (pp. 45-62). American Fisheries Society Symposium. https://doi.org/10.47886/9781888569810.ch4

Merson, R. R., & Pratt, Jr., H. L. (2001). Distribution, Movements and Growth of Young Sandbar Sharks, Carcharhinus Plumbeus, in the Nursery Grounds of Delaware Bay. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 61, 13-24. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1011017109776

Midway, S. R., & Scharf, F. S. (2012). Histological analysis reveals larger size at maturity for southern flounder with implications for biological reference points. Marine and Coastal Fisheries, 4(1), 628-638. https://doi.org/10.1080/19425120.2012.717524

Mowbray, T. B. (2020). Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus). In Birds of the World (1.0th ed.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.norgan.01

Nicholson, W. R. (1978). Movements and population structure of Atlantic menhaden indicated by tag returns. Estuaries, 1(3), 141. https://doi.org/10.2307/1351455

NOAA Fisheries. (2017). Final Amendment 10 to the 2006 consolidated Atlantic highly migratory species fishery management plan: Essential fish habitat and environmental assessment. https://www.habitat.noaa.gov/application/efhinventory/docs/a10_hms_efh.pdf

NOAA Fisheries. (2024). Atlantic highly migratory species essential fish habitat 5-year review. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/s3/2024-04/Final-HMS-EFH-5-Year-Review-508.pdf

Norcross, B. L., & Austin, H. M. (1988). Middle Atlantic bight meridional wind component effect on bottom water temperatures and spawning distribution of Atlantic croaker. Continental Shelf Research, 8(1), 69-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4343(88)90025-8

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. (2017). Coastal recreational angler’s guide. North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. https://digital.ncdcr.gov/documents/detail/3689389

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. (2022). Fishery management plan for interjurisdictional fisheries: Information update. North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. https://www.deq.nc.gov/marine-fisheries/fisheries-management/interjurisdictional/interjurisdictional-fmp-2022-information-update/open

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. (2023). North Carolina shrimp fishery management plan: Amendment 1. North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources. https://www.deq.nc.gov/marine-fisheries/fisheries-management/annual-fmp-review/2022/shrimp/open

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. (2026). Fishery management plan update: Spanish mackerel. North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. https://www.deq.nc.gov/marine-fisheries/fisheries-management/spanish-mackerel/open

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. (2026). Fishery management plan update: Black drum. North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. https://www.deq.nc.gov/marine-fisheries/fisheries-management/black-drum-fmp-update-2026/open

North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. (2026). Fishery management plan update: False albacore. North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. https://www.deq.nc.gov/marine-fisheries/fisheries-management/false-albacore-fmp-update-2026-0/open

North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. (2025). 2025 North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan. https://www.ncwildlife.gov/state-wildlife-action-plan

Omori, K. L., & Fisher, R. A. (2017). Summer and fall movement of cownose ray, Rhinoptera bonasus, along the East Coast of United States observed with pop-up satellite tags. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 100(11), 1435-1449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-017-0654-6

Oswald, J. A., Harvey, M. G., Remsen, R. C., Foxworth, D. U., Cardiff, S. W., Dittmann, D. L., Megna, L. C., Carling, M. D., & Brumfield, R. T. (2016). Willet be one species or two? A genomic view of the evolutionary history of Tringa semipalmata. The Auk, 133(4), 593-614. https://doi.org/10.1642/auk-15-232.1

Packer, D. B. (1999). Essential fish habitat source document. Summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, life history and habitat characteristics (NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-151). National Marine Fisheries Service. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/3149

Robinson, O. J., McGowan, C. P., & Devers, P. K. (2016). Updating movement estimates for American Black ducks (Anas rubripes). PeerJ, 4, e1787. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1787

Roskar, G., Morley, J. W., & Buckel, J. A. (2024). Seasonality and relative abundance within an elasmobranch assemblage near a major biogeographic divide. PLOS ONE, 19(6), e0300697. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300697

Ross, J. L., Stevens, T. M., & Vaughan, D. S. (1995). Age, growth, mortality, and reproductive biology of red drums in North Carolina waters. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 124(1), 37-54. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1995)124<0037:agmarb>2.3.co;2

Ross, S. W. (1988). Age, growth, and mortality of Atlantic croaker in North Carolina, with comments on population dynamics. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 117(5), 461-473. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1988)117<0461:agamoa>2.3.co;2

Smith, M. A., Mahoney, J., Knight, E. J., Taylor, L., Seavy, N. E., Bailey, O. H., Carbone, M., DeLuca, W., Gonzalez, N. S., Jimenez, M. F., W. O’Bryan, G. M., Rao, N., Witko, C. J., Wilsey, C., & Deppe, J. L. (2022). Bird Migration Explorer. National Audubon Society. https://explorer.audubon.org/

Stenhouse, I. J., Berlin, A. M., Gilbert, A. T., Goodale, M. W., Gray, C. E., Montevecchi, W. A., Savoy, L., & Spiegel, C. S. (2020). Assessing the exposure of three diving bird species to offshore wind areas on the U.S. Atlantic outer continental shelf using satellite telemetry. Diversity and Distributions, 26(12), 1703-1714. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13168

Stewart, C. B., & Scharf, F. S. (2008). Estuarine recruitment, growth, and first‐year survival of juvenile red drum in North Carolina. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 137(4), 1089-1103. https://doi.org/10.1577/t07-176.1

Sutherland, D. F., & Fable, Jr., W. A. (1980). Results of a king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) and Atlantic Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) migration study, 1975–79 (NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-12). National Marine Fisheries Service. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/5385

Tarr, N. M. (2008). Fall migration and vehicle disturbance of shorebirds at South Core Banks, North Carolina [Master’s thesis]. https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/items/c75ee0d7-84e5-419b-b90c-e253cf809561

Tilley, A., López-Angarita, J., & Turner, J. (2013). Effects of scale and habitat distribution on the movement of the southern stingray Dasyatis americana on a Caribbean atoll. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 482, 169-179. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10285

Titman, R. D. (n.d.). Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator). In The Birds of North America (443rd ed.). A. Poole & F. Gill.

Warlen, S. M., & Burke, J. S. (1990). Immigration of larvae of fall/Winter spawning marine fishes into a North Carolina Estuary. Estuaries, 13(4), 453. https://doi.org/10.2307/1351789

Warlen, S. M., & Chester, A. J. (1985). Warlen, S. M., & Chester, A. J. (1985). Age, growth, and distribution of larval spot, Leiostomus xanthurus, off North Carolina. Fishery Bulletin, 83(4), 587–599. Fishery Bulletin, 83(4), 587-599. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/fish-bull/warlen.pdf

Watts, B. D., Paxton, B. J., Hines, C., & Anderson, S. K. (2023). Estimating potential menhaden consumption by double-crested cormorants along the coast of North Carolina. Frontiers in Marine Science, 10, 1193429. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1193429

White, M. L., & Chittenden, Jr., M. E. (1977). Age determination, reproduction, and population dynamics of the Atlantic croaker, Micropogonias undulatus. Fishery Bulletin, 75(1), 109-123.